Introduction

Besides selecting the potentially best players for their teams, soccer academies have to optimize their training process to ensure the adequate development of the whole player (e.g., tactical, conditional, and emotional dimensions). To this end, playing form activities, those with a game-related focus such as small-sided and conditioned games (SSGs) that imply active decision-making (Ford et al., 2010), are frequently applied in worldwide soccer academies (Güllich, 2019; O’Connor et al., 2018; Partington and Cushion, 2013; Roca and Ford, 2020). Indeed, a newly released study (Emmonds et al., 2023) reported that English Women’s Super League Academy players spent almost 40% of their training time performing SSGs. The extensive assessment of both tactical and conditional responses of young male players during these training drills (Clemente et al., 2022; Hill-Haas et al., 2011; Low et al., 2020; Riboli et al., 2022) has helped coaches to design, select, and plan their training contents during the season. In the same way, assessing perceived enjoyment and competence can be valuable for programming the training intervention based on these pivotal ingredients of motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Unfortunately, despite the call made by Williams and Reilly over two decades ago (2000), few researchers have evaluated female soccer training (Williams et al., 2020).

Academy coaches design training tasks by modifying and combining structural traits according to the response they seek from the players. These modifications may concern one or several features of the training task (Parlebas, 2013): the relationship with the space (e.g., field size), with the time (e.g., task duration), with the equipment (e.g., number of balls), and with other players (e.g., how many there are of them). The decision often depends on previous experience on the field or the bench. Thus, empirical evidence regarding female players’ tactical, conditional, and emotional responses can reduce the distance between what coaches want (i.e., pursued effects) and what takes place (i.e., obtained effects) during training (Parlebas, 2013). Electronic performance and tracking systems such as global positioning systems (GPSs) make it possible to measure collective behavior and individual conditional efforts during training tasks (Cummins et al., 2013; Rico-González et al., 2020). How players use the space available on the field, the predictability of their movement patterns, and the coordination between them can be assessed using the GPS (Gonzalez-Artetxe and Los Arcos, 2021; Memmert et al., 2017; Rico-González et al., 2021), as well as several external workload variables such as distance covered at different speeds or high-intensity accelerations (Alanen et al., 2023; Asian-Clemente et al., 2022; Chena et al., 2022; Makaruk et al., 2024). Scholars have explored whether modifying the relationship of male soccer players with space, employing alternative field configurations (Coutinho et al., 2019a), eliminating external boundaries (Coutinho et al., 2020) or designating corridors and sectors as spatial references (Coutinho et al., 2019b), restricting the number of touches of the ball (Casamichana et al., 2014), and introducing floaters (Praça et al., 2022) influence their tactical and conditional responses when compared to nonconditioned SSGs. Evaluating the effects of modifying the structural traits of SSGs might enhance female soccer training, but few studies have assessed tactical, conditional, and emotional responses in this population (de Dios-Álvarez et al., 2022; Los Arcos et al., 2023; Ørntoft et al., 2016).

Although manipulating task conditions has been proposed as an appropriate training strategy to lead players’ response (Ometto et al., 2018; Ramos et al., 2020), the way coaches schedule and periodize these tasks and their effects have not been investigated enough in team sports training (Kiely, 2018; Mujika et al., 2018). Given that several repetitions of SSGs are usually performed within the same session, evaluating their impact on the different dimensions of the whole player would complement the assessment of these training forms (Clemente et al., 2022). Knowing how the players’ behavioral response evolves from bout to bout during conditioned or nonconditioned SSGs would help coaches to plan the time devoted to each training content in accordance with their tactical, conditional, and emotional goals. The differences between repetitions found in male soccer players’ external loads (Clemente et al., 2022) drove us to inquire into both tactical and conditional consequences of repeating the same SSG in female academy soccer. Therefore, this study aimed to assess and compare young female soccer players’ tactical, conditional, and emotional responses during repeated free and conditioned SSGs that modified the relationship between opponents.

Methods

Results

Taking the four bouts altogether, SA, Dist_players, Dist_nearest, SI, and SEI central tendency measures were significantly higher (p < 0.05) during SSG_free than in SSG_relationship, while no significant differences (p > 0.05) were found for ApEn measures (Table 1).

Except for distances at low-to-moderate-speed running (p < 0.05), significant differences were not apparent (p > 0.05) for total and high-speed, very-high-speed, and sprinting distances covered and the accelerations and decelerations performed between SSG conditions (Table 2).

SA, Dist_players, Dist_nearest, SI, and SEI central tendency measures were significantly lower during the first bout compared with consecutive bouts of SSG_free (Table 3). SA and Dist_nearest were also significantly lower from the first to the next bouts during the SSG_relationship (Table 4). Entropy differences were not found (p > 0.05) during the four bouts of SSG_free (Table 3) and SSG_relationship (Table 4), except for the ApEn of the SEI during the conditioned SSG (p < 0.05; 1^st bout higher than the 3^rd and the 4^th).

Significant differences were not apparent (p > 0.05) for conditional performance between bouts of both SSG conditions, free (Table 5) and modifying the relationship among opponents (Table 6), except for six pairwise comparisons (SSG_free: L-M S running, 1^st vs. 2^nd and 2^nd vs. 3^rd bouts; H S running, 1^st vs. 4^th bouts; decelerations, 1^st vs. 3^rd and 1^st vs. 4^th; SSG_relationship: L-M S running, 2^nd vs. 3^rd bouts).

No significant differences (p > 0.05) between the two SSG conditions were apparent in players’ perceived enjoyment (SSG_free, 4.81 ± 0.26 vs. SSG_relationship, 4.71 ± 0.48; η² = 0.02, trivial) and perceived competence (SSG_free, 3.77 ± 0.53 vs. SSG_relationship, 3.76 ± 0.41; Cohen’s d = 0.02, trivial) values. Enjoyment variabilities between players were 5.4% and 10.2% for SSG_free and SSG_relationship, respectively. Inter-player variabilities for perceived competence were 14.1% and 10.9% for SSG_free and SSG_relationship, respectively.

Discussion

This study assessed and compared young female soccer players’ tactical, conditional, and emotional responses during repeated free and conditioned SSGs. After modifying the social interaction between opponents, players occupied and explored less space and played closer to each other, but the predictability of tactical performance did not vary in comparison to SSG_free. In addition, conditional performance hardly varied, and enjoyment and perceived competence levels were very similar between both task conditions. Differences between bouts were more for tactical central tendency measures during SSG_free in comparison to SSG_relationship, but entropy values and conditional performance hardly varied between bouts under both SSG conditions. The findings indicate that modifying the interaction between opponents affects players’ tactical responses more than conditional responses (compared with free play). In particular, touching opponents before receiving the ball can acclimatize players to moving closer to their opponents during training tasks. Additionally, both SSG conditions cause players to behave similarly during several bouts of the same training session.

As with previous studies of male soccer players (Casamichana et al., 2014; Coutinho et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020; Praça et al., 2022), the present study may provide soccer academy coaches with practical insights into the impact of modifying the structural traits of the task on female players’ overall response (i.e., considering all the players together and without differentiating between phases of the play). In the present case, touching an opponent before receiving the ball implied that the ball was going to be won back, thus players were nearer to each other, and occupied and explored less space during the conditioned SSG than in the free one (Table 1). Just as coaches design and implement activities to induce their players to acquire and practice particular collective patterns and individual habits that enhance their socio-motor competence (Gréhaigne and Godbout, 1995; Newell and Rovegno, 2021), modifying the relationship with their opponents may encourage them to play closer together; for example, touching an opponent before receiving the ball may familiarize players with playing closer to their opponents during training tasks.

A similar study found that U12 female soccer players explored more space (p < 0.05) during non-conditioned SSGs than in SSGs with obstacles (i.e., cones, mini-goals, and saucer cones) scattered across the field, whereas differences were not found between task conditions for Dist_players and SI variables (Los Arcos et al., 2023). For coaches aiming to incite players to explore space, free play may prove more effective than conditioned tasks. It has been suggested that altering task conditions by introducing extra rules or placing obstacles on the field may stress and perturb players’ responses and boost their functionality in uncertain training scenarios (Santos et al., 2018; Schöllhorn et al., 2012). However, no significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between SSG conditions for ApEn values in all tactical variables (Table 1). Similarly, Dist_players and SI entropies were slightly higher (p < 0.05; Cohen’s d = small) during free play than with field obstacles (Los Arcos et al., 2023). Coaches who want to raise young female players’ levels of unpredictability and make them more adaptable in training and competitive settings replete with affordances should therefore modify task conditions more radically or exaggeratedly (Santos et al., 2018; Schöllhorn et al., 2012).

Among the few studies that have evaluated conditional performance in young female soccer players (de Dios-Álvarez et al., 2022), Ørntoft et al. (2016) modified the relation with others during training tasks to compare total distances and distances covered at different speed running intervals in U11 female soccer players. This study altered the number of people (7 vs. 7 and 8 vs. 8 plus goalkeepers), but not the interaction among players, such as the counter-communications among opponents (Parlebas, 2013). After this modification, players’ conditional performance hardly varied between SSG conditions (Table 2). In contrast to the modification of the number of players involved (Ørntoft et al., 2016), distances covered at low-to-moderate-speed running were moderately higher during non-conditioned SSGs (i.e., SSG_free) than in SSG_relationship, but differences were not apparent at higher intensities and during accelerations and decelerations. It appears that modifying the interaction between defenders and attackers using an additional rule barely impacts young female players’ conditional dimension when compared with SSG_free.

Tactical central tendency measures decreased from the beginning to the final bout of SSG_free, suggesting that players need several repetitions to adjust their tactical performance. However, this tendency was not so clear in SSG_relationship: the changes between bouts were less frequent, and their magnitudes ranged from trivial to small. Thus, conditioning the relationship between opponents may therefore encourage players to behave similarly across several bouts, and this may help to construct a relatively stable playing style (Gréhaigne and Godbout, 1995). Entropy measures were also similar during bouts of both SSG conditions; SSG_relationship does not appear to enrich task complexity (Pincus, 1991), at least not enough to alter players’ tactical response compared with free play. The little conditional variation between bouts (Tables 5 and 6) also suggests that this modification does not considerably affect players’ conditional performance. Thus, female soccer academy coaches can ensure a similar and stable average conditional response from their teams implementing 4 × 6-min seven-a-side SSGs with 3 min of passive rest between bouts within the session. Nevertheless, as previous studies had found (Ørntoft et al., 2016), they should expect high inter-player conditional variability (Tables 5 and 6). Training load quantification at the individual level is necessary to adapt the training contents to certain players if necessary.

No significant differences were found in U14 female players’ perceived enjoyment and competence levels between SSG conditions. Similarly, significant differences were not apparent when U12s played SSGs freely and with field obstacles (Los Arcos et al., 2023). These results suggest that modifying the structural traits of the game during SSGs does not mean that players enjoy it less or perceive themselves as less competent. Perceived enjoyment and competence levels attained playing freely (enjoyment: 4.81 ± 0.26; competence: 3.77 ± 0.53) or altering the relationship between opponents (enjoyment: 4.71 ± 0.48; competence: 3.76 ± 0.41) were similar and considerably high. U12 female soccer players also declared high levels for free (enjoyment: 4.15 ± 0.63; perceived competence: 3.63 ± 1.13) and with-obstacles (enjoyment: 3.42 ± 0.97; perceived competence: 3.33 ± 0.98) SSGs (Los Arcos et al., 2023). In comparison to this study, perceived enjoyment (SSG_free, CV = 15.2%; SSG_obstacles, CV = 31.1%) and competence (SSG_free, CV = 28.4%; SSG_obstacles, CV = 29.4%) inter-player variabilities were considerably greater in the youngest (i.e., U12) players (Los Arcos et al., 2023). Further studies should assess whether the greater variability values of the previous study were due to the players’ age (U12 vs. U14) or the task condition implemented.

Conclusions

The scope of the present study was limited in terms of the sample (a single team) and the length of the intervention (two training sessions, one for each SSG), thus the results could not be generalized. Despite its limitations, the study adds to our understanding of academy women’s soccer training, a subject that has been underresearched (particularly from a holistic perspective). By altering the relationship among players, in the present instance with the opponent, coaches might encourage their players to play closer without affecting their conditional performance, unpredictability or perceived enjoyment and competence. Further research with more training sessions and including more academy teams should be undertaken to explore how modifying soccer internal logic within SSGs impacts young female players’ tactical and conditional performance and their emotional experience.